Questionnaires and Scales on Human–Artificial Intelligence Interaction: Where Are We Now?

Abstract

With the rise of large language models such as ChatGPT, human–artificial intelligence (AI) interaction has become a major research focus, prompting the development of numerous measurement tools. This study examined the current landscape of AI-related behavioral and psychological instruments through bibliometric analysis and narrative review. A systematic search of Web of Science and Scopus identified 115 papers. Results showed a rapid increase in studies since 2022, with China as the leading contributor, although collaboration among scholars, institutions, and countries remained limited. Attitudes toward AI and AI literacy were the most frequently studied constructs. Narrative analysis identified 13 categories of instruments, including anxiety and fear of AI, dependence and problematic use, self-efficacy, trust, and user experience. Among them, the General Attitudes towards Artificial Intelligence Scale, Artificial Intelligence Literacy Scale, and Artificial Intelligence Anxiety Scale were the most widely used. Overall, these findings provide an overview of the field, support future tool selection, and highlight the need for greater attention to questionnaire translation, terminology, and conceptual clarity.